Naviculocuneiform Sag in the Acquired Flatfoot
What to Do

Joshua A. Metzl, MD

INTRODUCTION

Medial column collapse in the adult acquired flatfoot is a complex problem with several solutions. The typical flatfoot patient complains of medial or subfibular hindfoot pain with progressive planovalgus deformity. The posterior tibial tendon (PTT), along with the spring ligament complex, provides the structural integrity of the medial ankle. Fail- ure of these structures can lead to collapse of the medial column through the first tar- sometatarsal (TMT) joint, naviculocuneiform (NC) joint, or talonavicular (TN) joint.1
Physical examination helps to clarify the severity of PTT dysfunction (PTTD). In stage I PTTD, the patient can perform a single limb heel rise with some discomfort, but min- imal or no deformity. In stage II, the PTT becomes more diseased and the patient cannot perform a single limb heel rise. The hindfoot valgus is correctable, but residual forefoot varus can sometimes be appreciated (Fig. 1). Stage III disease is character- ized by a rigid flatfoot that is not passively correctable to neutral. The patient cannot perform a single limb heel rise.

Disclosure: Dr J.A. Metzl is a consultant for Arthrex.
Department of Orthopaedics, UC Health Steadman Hawkins Clinic Denver, 8200 East Belleview Avenue Suite 615, Greenwood Village, CO 80111, USA
E-mail address: [email protected]

Foot Ankle Clin N Am – (2017) -–-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcl.2017.04.007 foot.theclinics.com
1083-7515/17/ª 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Fig. 1. (A) Asymmetric heel valgus on the left side, typical of a patient with PTTD. (B) Resid- ual forefoot varus after correction of hindfoot valgus seen in type IIB flatfoot. Forefoot varus after correction of hindfoot valgus is an excellent indication for a Cotton osteotomy.

Radiographic evaluation of the flatfoot helps to quantify the severity of the problem and to guide treatment. Standing plain films can demonstrate relative shortening of the lateral column compared with the medial column. The TN joint can be 3 to 5 mm shorter than the calcaneocuboid (CC) joint on an anteroposterior (AP) radiograph, as compared with the typical parallel relationship in a normal radiograph. Forefoot abduction is assessed on standing plain films by the coverage of the TN joint. Some surgeons would consider adding a lateral column (ie, lateral column lengthening or distraction CC fusion) procedure with TN uncoverage greater than 50%. Meary’s angle is measured on the lateral radiograph and is formed by the intersection of a line drawn down the longitudinal axis of the talus and the first metatarsal. A measure- ment of less than 30○ is considered severe whereas a measurement of 15 to 30○ is moderate pes planus.2 The calcaneal pitch measures the angle between plantar aspect of the calcaneus and the ground. Normal is considered 10 to 30○ and less than 10○ is considered planus.
The weight-bearing lateral radiograph is the most important study for evaluation of the competence of the medial column. Careful examination of the TN, NC, and TMT joints is required for full evaluation of pes planus deformity. Plantar gapping at the first TMT joint may be indicative of a hypermobile first ray.1,3 Sag at the NC joint, degen- erative changes at the NC joint, or both can be appreciated as well. These findings may be used to guide surgical treatment.
In patients with an apex of deformity at the NC joint, the reverse Coleman block test can also be used to identify if arthrodesis or Cotton osteotomy is indicated.4 The pa- tient with heel valgus and sag at the NC joint on a standing lateral radiograph is asked to place the first metatarsal on a radiolucent block until the heel valgus is corrected to neutral. Repeat plain films are then obtained. If the NC sag persists, even with correc- tion of hindfoot valgus, then strong consideration should be given to addressing the medial column during surgery.

Recently, the medial arch sag angle (MASA) has been described as a technique to evaluate the contribution of midfoot deformity to pes planus. To evaluate MASA, a line is drawn along the articular surface of the navicular and a second line is drawn parallel to the first TMT joint on a lateral radiograph. The angle where these lines intersect is the MASA.5
Treatment of PTTD has many options, including operative and nonoperative. Nonsurgical options include orthotics, physical therapy, and boot or cast immobiliza- tion. If these measures fail, surgery may be warranted. Surgical options include tendon debridements, tendon transfers, osteotomies, fusions, or a mixture of these proced- ures. The mainstay of treatment of the diseased PTT is flexor digitorum longus (FDL) transfer to the navicular. This procedure is sometimes combined with an imbri- cation of the spring ligament,6 and a gastrocnemius recession. In most cases of adult acquired flatfoot deformity, at least some type of osseous reconstruction is required as well. If indicated, a lateral column lengthening or CC fusion may be required, but these procedures are not addressed in this article. Medial column procedures are typi- cally performed in conjunction with a reconstruction of the diseased PTT and spring ligament, with or without a medial displacement calcaneal osteotomy (MDCO), and a lateral column procedure as discussed above. The procedures covered in this article include the Cotton osteotomy and NC fusion.

REASONING BEHIND SURGICAL PROCEDURES THAT ADDRESS THE MEDIAL COLUMN

Flatfoot deformity includes loss of the medial arch (sagittal plane deformity), hindfoot valgus (coronal plane deformity), and forefoot abduction (axial or transverse plane deformity). This 3-dimensional deformity has been termed “dorsilateral peritalar sub- luxation” because abduction of the TN joint and eversion of the subtalar joint often are an integral part of the deformity. Peritalar subluxation is measured by TN coverage on an AP radiograph. Thus, the hindfoot deformity in this context can be attributed, at least in part, to the loss of stability through the medial column, as loss of the longitu- dinal arch through the medial column (medial column collapse) can occur through any one of the medial column joints (TN, NC or first TMT).7
Medial column fusion versus osteotomy is a subject of ongoing debate. Proponents of fusion cite predictable fusion rates, excellent deformity correction, and the nonessential function of the NC and TMT joints.7–11 Advocates for the Cotton osteotomy argue that the procedure reliably restores the Meary line, obviates fusion, and is joint sparing.5,12

COTTON OSTEOTOMY

The Cotton osteotomy is a dorsal opening wedge medial cuneiform osteotomy. First described in 1936 as a therapy for flatfoot to restore the tripod effect of the foot, it serves to plantar flex the first ray.13,14

INDICATIONS

The Cotton osteotomy is a useful adjunct to a flatfoot reconstruction. It can help to address residual forefoot varus after correction of hindfoot valgus. Forefoot varus can be identified on physical examination. With the hindfoot reduced to neutral, the forefoot remains in a supinated position.
Consideration should also be given to using the Cotton osteotomy to address sag at the NC joint or classically with residual forefoot supination in the flexible flatfoot as well. Aiyer and colleagues5 controlled for concomitant flatfoot procedures (eg, lateral column lengthening, tendon transfers) and showed that the Cotton osteotomy was a

Fig. 2. AP (A) and lateral (B) weight-bearing radiographs of a 67-year-old man with stage III pes planus. Note the degenerative changes at the subtalar and NC joint, NC sag with dorsal joint space narrowing, and significant forefoot abduction.

useful, joint-sparing alternative to midfoot fusion when medial column stabilization was required. The Cotton procedure is also a useful adjunct to avoid additional joint fusion in cases of NC sag with severe pes planovalgus and hindfoot degenerative changes (Figs. 2 and 3).

Fig. 3. The patient underwent medial double hindfoot fusion with gastrocnemius recession and Cotton procedure. These 3-month postoperative weight-bearing radiographs (A, B) show consolidating subtalar and NC fusion sites. Note significant improvement in forefoot abduction with the hindfoot fusion and improvement in NC sag with the addition of the Cotton procedure.

Contraindications to the Cotton procedure include severe degenerative changes at the NC joint and advanced deformity beyond what the typical 6- to 8-mm Cotton wedge can correct. In these circumstances, consideration for fusion is prudent.

TECHNIQUE

The patient is positioned supine on the operating room table. A thigh tourniquet is placed and a bump under the operative hip is placed to bring the foot to neutral. If indi- cated, a gastrocnemius recession or Achilles lengthening is performed first. The PTT is approached next, and the appropriate procedure is completed (eg, FDL transfer to navicular, modified Kidner procedure). Before securing the final fixation medially, all osteotomies (eg, MDCO, lateral column lengthening, CC fusion) are completed and appropriate fixation is placed (Fig. 4). It is now critical to assess forefoot varus, and if residual varus persists, a Cotton osteotomy is indicated. The Cotton osteotomy could also be indicated based on NC sag determined preoperatively. The medial cuneiform is identified with a freer elevator using fluoroscopy (Fig. 5). An incision dor- sal to the extensor digitorum longus (EHL) tendon is made and the EHL tendon is retracted laterally. The interval between the tibialis anterior and EHL is often used as well. A K-wire is placed in the medial cuneiform in the projected plane of the osteot- omy, which is 90○ perpendicular to the medial cuneiform at the central portion of the bone (see Fig. 5). A sagittal saw is used to create the osteotomy. It is crucial to leave the plantar cortex intact to maintain the stability of the osteotomy. Trials are then inserted from dorsal to plantar to assess correction. Typical wedge size is from 5 to 8 mm depending on the severity of the deformity. A pin distractor or laminar spreader can be helpful to hinge the osteotomy open to insert the trial (see Fig. 7). Once the appropriate trial has been selected, the graft is inserted (see Fig. 8). Graft choices

Fig. 4. Once the FDL tendon is harvested and provisionally transferred to the navicular, the MDCO is completed before the Cotton osteotomy is performed. Note 1-cm medial transla- tion of tuberosity fragment. An axial view of the heel ensures that the hardware is in good position and that the tuberosity fragment is appropriately translated.

Fig. 5. Location of medial cuneiform with a freer elevator is helpful to place the incision for the Cotton osteotomy in the correct location.

include iliac crest autograft, allograft, or metal wedges. Dorsal fixation is used as needed depending on the press fit of the graft (Figs. 6–9).
After wound closure, the patient is splinted. Sutures are removed at 2 weeks, and a short-leg, non-weight-bearing cast is placed. Weight bearing in a walker boot is initi- ated at 6 weeks if there is evidence of radiographic healing. Shoe wear is often toler- ated at 10 to 12 weeks postoperatively.
The Cotton procedure helps to restore the tripod of the foot through plantar flexion of the first ray. Several articles have shown powerful correction of Meary line, high

Fig. 6. A K-wire is placed in the medial cuneiform in the projected plane of the osteotomy, which is 90○ perpendicular to the medial cuneiform at the central portion of the bone.

Fig. 7. The appropriate sized trial is used before the final implant is impacted into position. It is important to keep the plantar cortex intact to preserve the stability of the osteotomy.

Fig. 8. Final construct, including Cotton osteotomy (with a metal 5-mm wedge) and MDCO with compression staples (A). Note the plantar cortex remains intact for the Cotton osteotomy (B).

Fig. 9. Six-week postoperative standing radiograph showing the Cotton wedge in good po- sition with the MDCO almost fully healed.

union rates, and excellent patient satisfaction.5,12,15 The Cotton osteotomy is a tech- nically straightforward procedure that should be considered in cases of NC sag without advanced NC arthrosis or residual forefoot varus after correction of hindfoot valgus (Figs. 10–12).

Fig. 10. Case example of a 51-year-old woman with PTTD and moderate pes planus. Note the NC sag on the lateral view (A) and uncoverage of talar head on AP view (B).

Fig. 11. T2 MRI of patient in Fig. 10 showing fluid in the PTT sheath and a split tear of the tendon.

NAVICULOCUNEIFORM FUSION

Over the years, several different procedures have been described that use NC and medial column fusion to achieve correction in flatfoot. The goal of these surgeries has been similar, to maintain hindfoot motion and improve arch height. In 1927, Miller16 hypothesized that loss of support from the medial structures in the foot caused flatfoot deformity. He proposed NC fusion, along with first TMT fusion, achilles tendon lengthening (TAL), and PTT osteoperiosteal flap advancement as a treatment of flexible flatfoot in adolescents. Miller noted improvement in 16 patients with 2.5 years of follow-up.2,16 In 1931, Hoke described NC fusion in both adults and adolescents. His procedure consisted of a bone block arthrodesis of the NC joint, along with PTT advancement and Achilles lengthening. In 1983, the modified Hoke-Miller procedure was described, which included NC fusion and an opening wedge osteotomy of the medial cuneiform.
In 2005, Greisberg and colleagues7 published on medial column fusion (NC fusion, with and without TMT fusion), along with PTT debridement and FDL transfer in adult acquired flatfoot. The investigators thought that midfoot realignment and arthrodesis could improve bony relationships in some adult-acquired flatfeet with subluxation of the first TMT joint and/or sag at the medial NC joint. In 19 patients, the lateral talome- tatarsal angle was near normal after surgery, suggesting that a decrease in TN sublux- ation in the axial plane results in passive improvement in hindfoot position without

Fig. 12. Sixteen-month postoperative standing plain films after MDCO, FDL transfer, and Cotton osteotomy with allograft wedge and dorsal plate (A). Note improvement in NC sag on lateral radiograph (B).

direct manipulation of any hindfoot bones or joints. These observations provide evi- dence for a link between stability of the midfoot and alignment of the hindfoot. The in- vestigators argued that hindfoot alignment can be improved without fusing essential joints (Fig. 13).
In 2013, Ajis and Geary9 reported on 28 patients (33 feet) that underwent NC fusion for NC sag or degenerative changes at the NC joint in the context of pes planus. Ninety-seven percent of patients had a satisfactory outcome with radiographic and clinical correction of flatfoot deformity. Of note, average time to fusion was 5 months, which is longer than is seen in other foot joints.
Neglected NC arthritis can lead to progressive medial column instability. If left un- treated, this can cause transfer of stress across the midfoot, including lesser meta- tarsal stress fractures and/or midfoot arthritis (Figs. 14–16).
Nonunion is the main potential complication in NC fusion. The risk is low but is worth consideration. Ford and Hamilton17 cite up to a 7% nonunion rate in their review article. In Greisberg’s seminal article on medial column stability, the nonunion rate of when both the NC and TMT joints were fused together was 15%. Barg and col- leagues10 combined NC fusion with subtalar fusion in stage II and III flatfoot deformity and had zero nonunions. Their construct had dorsal screws as well as a plantar-medial plate at the NC joint to act as a tension band. In a heavy smoker or severe diabetic, one might consider another procedure for flatfoot reconstruction given the nonunion risk associated with NC fusion.

Technique of Naviculocuneiform Fusion
The patient is placed supine on the operating room table; a thigh tourniquet is placed, and a bump under the operative hip is placed to bring the foot to neutral. If indicated, a gastrocnemius recession if performed first. A medial approach to the foot between the medial cuneiform and the medial malleolus is then made. The incision is typically just dorsal to the PTT. The PTT is approached first and the appropriate procedure is

Fig. 13. (A) Standing lateral radiograph of a patient with sag at the degenerative changes and sag at the NC joint and plantar gapping at the first TMT base. (B) Talonavicular unco- verage noted on an AP radiograph. (C) Lateral radiograph 6 months after medial column arthrodesis. Note improvement in the NC sag with opening of the sinus tarsi. (D) AP radio- graph showing significant improvement in the NC coverage. (Courtesy of Dr Justin Greisberg, Columbia Orthopaedics New York, NY.)

Fig. 14. AP (A) and lateral (B) weight-bearing radiographs of a 64-year-old woman with pro- gressive midfoot pain. Note the degenerative changes apparent at the NC joint and first, second, and third TMT joints.

completed. Debridement is possible in this context, but traditional FDL transfer to the navicular is more challenging because of the NC fusion fixation. If necessary, FDL transfer to the posterior tibial stump is an option. Next, any necessary osteotomies or fusion should be completed (eg, MDCO, lateral column lengthening, CC fusion, subtalar fusion) and appropriate fixation is placed. The NC joint is then opened with a Hintermann distractor (Hintermann distractor; New-deal-Integra LifeSciences, Plainsboro, NJ, USA) using pins in the medial cuneiform and navicular. The anterior tibial tendon should be protected dorsally. One must expose all 3 NC joints for prep- aration. The articular cartilage is then denuded with a combination of curettes and osteotomes, and the osseous surfaces are drilled and shingled. Any necessary auto- graft or allograft is then placed.

Fig. 15. Computed tomographic scan of patient in Fig. 14 showing advanced degenerative changes across the midfoot.

Fig. 16. AP (A) and lateral (B) weight-bearing radiographs 2 years after extended midfoot fusion. The patient had significant improvement in pain.

It is important to address an NC sag at this point by making an attempt to plantar flex the cuneiform bones and dorsiflex the navicular. Gentle rotation of the pin distractors in these bones can greatly help to facilitate this reduction (Fig. 17). With the reduction held in place, hardware is placed across the NC joint for fusion. Combinations of plates, screws, and staples have all been described (Fig. 18).

Fig. 17. (A, B) Pin distractor in the navicular and medial cuneiform in the uncorrected posi- tion. (C, D) Correction of NC sag by rotation of the pin distractor. (From Barg A, Brunner S, Zwicky L, et al. Subtalar and naviculocuneiform fusion for extended breakdown of the medial arch. Foot Ankle Clin 2011;16(1):75–6; with permission.)

Fig. 18. (A) Placement of fixation with the medial column held in a corrected position. (B) 5.5-mm cannulated screws across NC joint. (C, D) Addition of medial/plantar plate for tension band effect. (From Barg A, Brunner S, Zwicky L, et al. Subtalar and naviculocuneiform fusion for extended breakdown of the medial arch. Foot Ankle Clin 2011;16(1):75–6; with permission.)

SUMMARY

No single procedure is enough to address the complexity of the adult acquired flat- foot deformity. Careful physical evaluation and weight-bearing radiographs are required to form a comprehensive surgical plan. Sag at the NC joint represents an important aspect of the flatfoot deformity. Failure to address medial column insta- bility could lead to continued deformity and poor patient outcomes. Whether in com- bination with other procedures or in isolation, NC fusion and Cotton osteotomy are important pieces of the armamentarium to address all aspects of the flatfoot deformity.

REFERENCES

1. Pedowitz WJ, Kovatis P. Flatfoot in the adult. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 1995;3(5): 293–302.
2. Cohen BE, Ogden F. Medial column procedures in the acquired flatfoot deformity. Foot Ankle Clin 2007;12(2):287–99, vi.
3. Coughlin MJ, Jones CP. Hallux valgus and first ray mobility. A prospective study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2007;89(9):1887–98.
4. Wood EV, Syed A, Geary NP. Clinical tip: the reverse coleman block test radio- graph. Foot Ankle Int 2009;30(7):708–10.
5. Aiyer A, Dall GF, Shub J, et al. Radiographic correction following reconstruction of adult acquired flat foot deformity using the Cotton medial cuneiform osteotomy. Foot Ankle Int 2016;37(5):508–13.
6. Deland JT. The adult acquired flatfoot and spring ligament complex. Pathology and implications for treatment. Foot Ankle Clin 2001;6(1):129–35, vii.
7. Greisberg J, Assal M, Hansen ST Jr, et al. Isolated medial column stabilization improves alignment in adult-acquired flatfoot. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2005;(435):197–202.
8. Greisberg J, Hansen ST Jr, Sangeorzan B. Deformity and degeneration in the hindfoot and midfoot joints of the adult acquired flatfoot. Foot Ankle Int 2003; 24(7):530–4.
9. Ajis A, Geary N. Surgical technique, fusion rates, and planovalgus foot deformity correction with naviculocuneiform fusion. Foot Ankle Int 2014;35(3):232–7.
10. Barg A, Brunner S, Zwicky L, et al. Subtalar and naviculocuneiform fusion for extended breakdown of the medial arch. Foot Ankle Clin 2011;16(1):69–81.
11. Jack EA. Naviculo-cuneiform fusion in the treatment of flat foot. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1953;35-B(1):75–82.
12. Lutz M, Myerson M. Radiographic analysis of an opening wedge osteotomy of the medial cuneiform. Foot Ankle Int 2011;32(3):278–87.
13. Mosca VS. Calcaneal lengthening for valgus deformity of the hindfoot. Results in children who had severe, symptomatic flatfoot and skewfoot. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1995;77(4):500–12.
14. McCormick JJ, Johnson JE. Medial column procedures in the correction of adult acquired flatfoot deformity. Foot Ankle Clin 2012;17(2):283–98.
15. Tankson CJ. The Cotton osteotomy: indications and techniques. Foot Ankle Clin 2007;12(2):309–15, vii.
16. Miller O. A plastic flatfoot operation. J Bone Joint Surg 1927;9:84–91.
17. Ford LA, Hamilton GA. Naviculocuneiform arthrodesis. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 2004;21(1):141–56.